SLP - 1 Routine and Goodwill Emails Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

SLP - 1 Routine and Goodwill Emails - Essay Example It will allow the different campus departments to understand their responsibility as well as cut back on costs immensely. Employees would have to empty their own trash baskets unlike what used to happen in the past. The recycling efforts shall pave the way for the overall development of the departments at the campus, and reduce the budget constraints which are being faced at the present. Also this shall help the employees to do a bit of exercise which is always a good step for their health and well-being. We believe that this step will help reduce the departmental custodial costs and go a long way in helping the employees deal with the recycling efforts. This will be a good step that shall save the campus a considerable amount of money as well as help the environment with efficient modes of recycling on a regular basis. The campus is delighted to announce that yet again its priorities are set on bringing new and novel methods to save on costs that are incurred every year. We have thought of a unique way to settle the costs that have been mounting for a considerable time period now. Since we have always valued the services, we do not believe in cutting them down at any cost. However, the 25 percent budget reduction is a figure that we meet this year and in order to sustain such a pressing concern, we have decided to go ahead with our recycling efforts which will not only save time but also money. Now the employees would be asked to empty their trash baskets themselves by taking a walk to the trash bins. It will not only refresh the employees since there will be exercise for them but would also contribute to the environment in one or the other way. We are confident that this small step in building confidence within the employees even further. We have always valued your work and look forward to positive contributions on your part in the future as well. Both the emails are direct and go ahead with the

Wine Festival Event Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Wine Festival Event - Essay Example Media coverage would be very important to making this event work, as appropriate advertising must be done to ensure that the wine loving public is aware of this event. Wine lovers will be the main attendees of this event, as it will give them an opportunity to sample many different wines from around the region. In addition, wines that are new to the marketplace will be encouraged to participate in order to raise public interest on their specific product. This is an excellent opportunity for restaurant and bar owners to advertise themselves to the demographic that they need to reach. For sponsorship, we can look to bars and restaurants that sell wines and brandys because this could be used as an advertising expenditure for them. The Australian government is another possible sponsor, as this event will be used to help local businesses grow. The goal of this event is to familiarize the public with the various types of wines that are available in the region, with a special emphasis being placed on local wines. This is done in order to promote local businesses and products, which will hopefully benefit the local economy. Once the event grows in popularity, it could also become a popular tourist destination for wine lovers who wish to experience a multitude of wines in a short people of time. Other goals would be to increase Australian wines sales by 20% and to allow for new Australian wines to have an opportunity to reach the public. This event, which would take place at the Gold Coast Convention and Exhibition Centre, would have a very unique format, due to the amount of wines that would be present. The main concept is to create a venue for winemakers, restaurants, and bars to get their products into the public eye in a relaxed and hospitable environment. Winemakers, bars, and restaurants would bring their products to the event and allow for those attending to sample them for a low price. Each of these participants would bring some featured

History about the war Essay Example for Free

History about the war Essay It is very true that the United States overthrew Guatemala, Chile and Iran. There are some motivations behind the overthrows. One of the motivations behind the overthrows is nationalism. This is because United Nations just like all other nations opposes nationalism. Other main motivations behind the United States overthrow to these countries include the urge to impose its ideology, gaining control of some of the valuable resources and the increase of its power. The United States also carries out coups, invasions and revolutions so that it can topple it feared or mistrusted. It also uses a variety of methods in persuading g other countries into assisting them with the coups revolutions and invasions. The methods used include the offering of booties to states that support its interests, time-honored strategies of diplomacy and retaliation threats to those countries that refuse to support them. In Chile United States launched its coup with the aim of propagating the spirit of good humanitarian ground. This is because Pinochet was highly involved in human rights violations because his security forces were perceived to be accountable for more than 3,197 murders of the Chilean citizens. 1,100 of the murdered citizens â€Å"disappeared† for they were abused to their death, thrown by the military from the helicopters into Pacific Ocean or buried into secret graves. The other reason as to why united states carried out the coup was to ensure that it prevented its consolidation and also limited the governments ability to implement some of the policies which were contrary to itself (U.  S) and also hemispheric interests. U. S also committed some coups with the aim of fostering its accessibility to some of the economically rich regions. For instance in 1953 Dulles ordered a coup on Iran which was intended to make Middle East very safe for American oil companies. United sates committed a coup in Guatemala because it disliked the communist policies which were set by Arbenz. He was perceived to be a communist because h e sought to give the landless some land or in other words he advocated for equal land distribution by giving peasants the idle lands which belonged to the upper class. Dulles had ordered the coup in Guatemala because he had disliked the way the nationalist government had confronted the power of the United Fruit Company which was represented by his old law firm (Npr. org, 01). United States of America was involved in what was called â€Å"people’s war† against fascism. All the American were in agreement with capitalists, democrats, republicans, communists, rich, poor and the middle class and this is why the war was referred to as the people’s war. This war was the trendiest in United States that the country had ever fought. This is because around 18 million people participated in the war. And over 25 million workers contributed financially to the war. The power of the nation, church, press and also chief radical organizations called for all-out war. The war was in opposition to an enemy of appalling evil. for instance Hitlers Germany was widening totalitarianism, , militarism and overt aggressive, and racism warfare outside what an already contemptuous world had gone through yet, the governments(the United States, England, the Soviet Union) accomplishing this represented something considerably different, so that their success would be a bluster to imperialism, totalitarianism, racism, militarism, in the world. America stepped up as the defender of vulnerable countries matching its image in American history textbooks for high school. For instance it opposed Haitian revolution for independence from France at the beginning of 19C. America just pursued its imperialist interests in the name of assisting the helpless countries for it instigated conflicts with Mexico taking half of the country. It also pretended to rescue Cuba from Spain at the same time it stagnated there with military base, rights of interventions and investments. It also grabbed Hawaii Guam and Puerto Rico it also took the con troll of panama by revolutionizing against Columbia. The main reason as to why US entered the WW II was to defend the principle referred to as the non-intervention of other country’s or states affairs but many questions arose about its credibility. United States was one of the victors in WW II thus coming into a position to dominate many areas in the world and also creating conditions for efficient and effective control at home. The war brought about higher prices for all farmers, enough prosperity, higher wages, higher prosperity unlike thirties which was accompanied by a lot of unemployment and economic distress. The war was pressing people at home because the budget was mainly to the advantage of military operations abroad without considering the needs of people at home. For example people were affected by the test of the nuclear weapons but the leaders argued that it was not harmful (libcom. org/history 1). The presence of the country in permanent war kind of economy proved to be very big pockets for poverty. The distribution of health also remained unequal with the highest family getting 45 % of all the income and the lowest family getting 5% there was unequal distribution of wealth, tax advantages and income. Many American citizens were afraid of communism and this was oppressing those who believed in it. Many people were against the war. This is because they felt that the war was only seeking to dominate other countries. They said that it was commercial, ruthless and imperialistic. Socialist parties opposed the war arguing that it was a crime against the people of United States many opponent claim that the war was a human violence because it was a murderous kind of business. Again the opponents argued that a lot of nation’s money is not well utilized when it is used in wars for there are many ways of cheap mediations which do not involve conflicts. Opponents felt that the war is inhuman to both countries because some of the devices used are harmful to innocent citizens (Zinn 355). Bernay’s ideas on social control can be used to think about Friedman’s book secret histories because they both assume that propaganda can be a very effective tool for manipulating and shaping public opinion in the current society. Friedman has quoted how America used propaganda into fostering war against other countries. For example it lied that it was going to assist helpless countries only for the American to star dominating investing in those countries. Edwards’s propaganda disagrees with skeptics who argue about low levels of illiteracy. He says that printed word played a very crucial role during the early reformation. This is because it enabled Luther in broadcasting his attack towards the traditional authorities with greater rapidity and also made it possible to co-ordinate some of the activities of scattered followers. The printed medium embodied the subversive messages it conveyed. Numerous duplicates of cheap agitatory pamphlets reinforced the message of lay involvement much to the disadvantage and distress of catholic publicist. Edward uses the character of early Lutheran teachings to stress the difference between the limited vernacular literatures to lay readers before 1512 and what is currently known to the historian familiar with lathers works. Luther’s views were highly publicized by catholic rebuttals. In the hidden sides of Vietnam War Friedman is trying to identify some of the truth. Friedman argues that during the Vietnam War the United States was only seeking to undermine Hanoi’s subversion of the Saigon regime by sending Vietnamese operatives behind the enemy’s line. The secret to most of the Americans was that this covert operation was far from secret in Hanoi because all the commandos were either killed or captured and thereafter turned into communists to report false information. Using Bernay’s propaganda we can say that the U. S propaganda did its job incorrectly. This is because the educated section of the population accepted the government Vietnam War propaganda without questions. The United States was the one attacking southern Vietnam but it claimed that it was not the one because most of the American population was against those attacks. Book Review. The book â€Å"voices of a people’s history of united states† by Howard Zinn talks about gives the history of the fight for human dignity. He highlights some of the most significance political acts which were perceived to be the sound of the real human voice. This book assist me in understanding the modern American history for it highlights the idea that the minimization of resistance can only be achieved through the propagation of the idea that power remains with people who have guns, who posses wealth, own newspapers and also those who own television stations. The book assists me in understanding the reason as to why there are movements to fight the lack of voice brought about by lack of power.

Significance of Sustainable Agriculture

Significance of Sustainable Agriculture Ahmad Fitri Bin Jamaludin Table of Contents (Jump to) CHAPTER 1: Introduction CHAPTER 2: Roles of Sustainable Agriculture Economy Roles Social Responsibility Research for Sustainable Agriculture Future CHAPTER 3: Importance of Sustainable Agriculture Future Predictions Environmental Factors Scarcity of Land Profit Factors Rural Economies CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION CHAPTER 5: REFERENCES CHAPTER 1:  Introduction Sustainable agriculture is the production of agricultural goods, necessary to satisfy the needs of present and future generations, in order to protect the components of natural factors, like water, air and soil. Technologies and production approaches that meet ecological environmental development requirements is being used for sustainable agriculture. Sustainable agricultural requires the prevention of ecological crises, like major accidents, with strong negative impact on the environment. Source: http://www.saiplatform.org/sustainable-agriculture/definition In the diagram, we can see that economy, environment and society play a major role to achieve sustainable agriculture. Environmental problems happen on big geographic areas, starting with the local level, on-going with the regional and ending on a global level. The global level prevents environmental issues from getting resolved and needs other global approaches. Globalization is an objective developing process of contemporary world that has a great potential for making the world better. The key causes of globalization are represented by two processes which are technological and political. The technological process consists in a strong and rapid development of communications and transport. The means of communication allow people to connect and interact on large geographical areas. The vehicles let people to move and interact in a short time over long distances. Political processes have made national borders easier to pass or disappear by creating international organizations. Environmental issues are related to contemporary social economic development. The main socio-economic issues to be addressed are combating poverty, changing consumption and production structures, demographic dynamics, environmental and human health protection. The survival of the society as a whole is influenced by individual behaviour and the behaviour of various communities. CHAPTER 2:  Roles of Sustainable Agriculture Economy Roles A farm must be economically viable in order to be truly sustainable. The environmental and social advantages of sustainable production methods do not always interpret into immediate economic improvements. Hence, sustainable agriculture practices can have a positive economic impression on a farm. For example, diversifying the farm with several crops and markets helps to reduce financial risk. Over time, improved soil and water quality, as well as other environmental benefits from sustainable practices, may raise the value of the farm. Selling products directly to local markets in the community reduces shipping and fuel costs and can potentially decrease transportation costs. While sustainably grown produce may not bring the full price premiums sometimes paid for certified organic products, growers selling directly to individuals and specialty markets can still capture added value. Production costs can be variously affected by sustainable methods. Fertilizer and pesticide costs are gen erally reduced on a sustainably managed farm because, for example, legumes and crop rotations tend to be less expensive than their synthetic alternatives. Labour costs are often higher than conventional systems. The higher labour costs are most often attributed to the increased time required for monitoring and managing pests on sustainable farms. Planting material costs can be lower for growers saving their own seed or producing their own stock. However, those using organic planting material often pay more for seed or other planting material. Machinery costs (purchase, fuel, and repairs) will vary depending on the specific type of sustainable production system. Conservation tillage systems and reduced pesticide applications can cut costs related to machinery use and fuel costs. On the other hand, certain systems, such as ridge tillage, can require specialized equipment. Fuel and machinery costs can increase as a result of moving bulky materials, such as organic matter, for soil improvement purposes. The result is that some farms that utilize sustainable agriculture practices may be more profitable than their conventional farming counterparts, although the reverse can also be true. In addition to crop production methods, many other factors can affect the bottom line, including management, marketing skills, and experience. Social Responsibility Social sustainability relates to the quality of life for those who work and live on the farm, as well as those in the local community. Fair treatment of workers, positive farm family relationships, personal interactions with consumers, and choosing to purchase supplies locally (rather than from a more distant market) are just some of the aspects considered in social sustainability. Community supported agriculture (CSA), farmers markets, U-pick, cooperatives, and on-farm events are just some of the ways a sustainable farm can have a positive impact on the local community. In essence, the farm supports the community and the community supports the farm. According to ATTRA (2003), there are few actions need to be done in order to achieve the social sustainability which resulting the sustainable agriculture. First, the farm should support other businesses and families in community. The money should just circulate within local economy. Young people should take over their parents’ farms and continue farming. Research for Sustainable Agriculture Future Sustainable agriculture represents for farmers and rural communities, federal investments in research, education, and extension geared for sustainable agricultural systems have been woefully inadequate. National Sustainable Agriculture Coalition(NSAC) recognizes that without sufficient resources for relevant research, education, and extension, farmers and ranchers will be unable to access new and emerging innovations, information and markets that will help them expand their businesses, conserve natural resources, and address food and nutrition needs in their communities. Throughout 2013, NSAC worked to increase federal resources and funding for sustainable agriculture research, education, and extension in recognition of the critical importance that research plays in ensuring success and innovation across all sectors of agriculture (NSAC, 2013). In 2013, NSAC continued its efforts to secure increased funding and support for critical agriculture research programs, like the Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program (SARE). SARE, US Department of Agriculture (USDA)’s flagship program for sustainable agriculture, recently celebrated its 25th anniversary, thanks in large part to NSAC’s continued advocacy over the years. NSAC also fought to restore and increase funding for critical research programs that are currently â€Å"stranded† due to the farm bill expiration last fall, including those programs that support research on organic production, specialty crops, and beginning farmer and ranchers, such as the Organic Agriculture Research and Extension Program and the Beginning Farmers and Ranchers Development Program. The Organic Production and Marketing Data Initiatives program (ODI) is a valuable resource that provides policymakers, organic farmers, and organic businesses the data they need to make sound policy, business, and marketing decisions. This year, NSAC continued to advocate for this important annual funding stream, especially as USDA gears up to release its next comprehensive Census of Agriculture in 2014 and follow up survey of organic producers. NSAC also successfully secured a coveted spot on USDA’s National Agriculture Statistics Service (NASS) Advisory Committee, which sets priorities and provides recommendations for future federal data collection efforts through the Department of Agriculture. By having a seat at the table, NSAC will more effectively be able to highlight the critical importance of collecting reliable data for sustainable producers including organic farmers and those growing for local and regional markets. CHAPTER 3:  Importance of Sustainable Agriculture There is a lot of importance of sustainable agriculture. The main significance is to make sure that the agriculture on supplying goods, food, water, air and soil satisfy the need of present and future. Future Predictions Source: Crop Breeding for Low Input Agriculture: A sustainable Response to feed a Growing Population Growth Figure above show the world population is increasing and the availability of resources statistic and prediction. It summarize that the number of resources going to decrease as the population increase. In order to stabilize the output of crops and goods, the sustainable agriculture has to be done. Environmental Factors Environmental concerns are vital to sustainable agriculture. Sustainable agriculture is frequently described as ecologically sound practices that have little to no adverse effect on natural ecosystems. However, more than that, sustainable agriculture also seeks to have a positive impact on natural resources and wildlife. This can often mean taking measures to reverse the damage. For example, soil erosion or draining of wetlands that have already occurred through harmful agricultural practices. Renewable natural resources are protected, recycled, and even replaced in sustainable systems. Also inherent to sustainable agriculture environmental concerns is the stewardship of non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuels. A key to successful sustainable production is healthy soil, with a central tenet that management practices â€Å"feed the soil and the soil feeds the crop.† Ecologically, this means that soil fertility is provided by adequate soil organic matter and biologically based inputs that feed soil organisms, which release nutrients to plants. Sustainable methods of enhancing soil fertility and improving soil health include: using nitrogen-fixing legumes, green manure, and animal manure; minimizing or eliminating tillage; and maintaining year round soil cover. However, depending on the condition of the soil, establishing healthy soils may take several years. This approach does not preclude the use of synthetic fertilizer that can be used to supplement natural inputs. However, fertilizer decisions are based upon soil test results and are applied on as needed basis. Synthetic chemicals known to harm soil organisms and soil structure must be avoided in sustainable agriculture. Source: Sustainable Agriculture (John, Robert, James, 1990) Combination of crops, or of crops and livestock, make farms more sustainable by maintaining soil productivity and by reducing a farms reliance on a single crop. On the farm shown above, the parallel strips of land have been planted on the contour of the terrain with oats (yellow) or corn or alfalfa (both green). Within each strip, crops rotate on a four-year cycle: corn (a one-year crop) is replaced by oats (another one-year crop), which is then replaced by alfalfa (a two-year crop). Such rotations improve the control of weeds, insects and diseases; they also improve the efficiency of nutrient cycling. Contour strip-cropping greatly reduces soil erosion. Other sustainable concepts include maximizing diversity through planned crop rotations, intercropping, and companion planting; protecting water quality; composting; year round soil cover; integrating crop and animal production; soil conservation practices; and attracting beneficial wildlife (Mark,Krista,Matt, 2012). A few traditional agricultural practices, such as moldboard plowing, are in conflict with sustainability since they can result in damage to soil structure. Rather, tillage practices should be appropriately timed, using implements that minimize damage to soil structure to the greatest extent possible. Insects, diseases, and weeds are managed, rather than controlled, in sustainable systems. The goal is not necessarily the complete elimination of a pest, but rather to manage pests and diseases to keep crop damage within acceptable economic levels. Sustainable pest management practices emphasize prevention through good production and cultural methods. Some strategies include: using crop rotations that will disrupt the pest life cycle, improving soil quality, practicing good sanitation, using optimum planting densities, timing planting and transplanting operations to avoid high pest populations, employing biological control, and growing resistant varieties. Monitoring pests through frequent crop inspections and accurate identification are essential to keeping ahead of potential problems. Integrated Pest Management techniques can be incorporated into a sustainable program. These may include scouting, targeting pesticide applications, and the use of biological pest controls. Pesticides are seen as a last resort when using IPM methods, and are chosen for their low toxicity, specificity to the pest, and lack of persistence in the soil. Achieving a healthy, balanced ecosystem takes time. Making the transition to sustainable farming is a process that generally requires moving forward step-by-step. While there are common goals that are critical to sustainable agriculture, there is no single approach that will guarantee sustainable success on every farm. The methods for accomplishing those goals must be tailored to the individual farm. Scarcity of Land Land is one of the resources that going to deplete across with the world population. There are some 5 billion hectares of land presently available for the global food supply: 1.5 billion hectares of farmland and permanent crops as well as 3.5 billion hectares of grassland, grazing land and extensively used steppe (Warner, 2008). Of this land, 1.9 billion hectares have already been degraded to a greater or lesser extent due to intensive and improper use (IAASTD, 2008). According to figures from the UN convention on desertification, 80 per cent of the agricultural land has been damaged by erosion to a moderate to considerable degree (David, 1995). Ten million hectares are lost to erosion every year. That is ten times the amount of arable land in Switzerland. And even in the developing world, expanding settlements are increasingly devouring farmland. All told, the rate of annual loss of farmland is 1.3 per cent (David, 2005). The need to stop the loss of farmland is urgent. This includes regenerating depleted soils so they can be uses in the future with sustainable production methods. Compost has a key role to play here. Profit Factors Source: Sustainable Agriculture (John, Robert, James, 1990) Profits from sustainable farms can exceed those of conventional farms, according to Steven L. Kraten, formerly of Washington State University. The cash incomes per acre for the two types of farms were comparable over two years, but because the input costs of sustainable agriculture are lower, its net returns are 22.4 percent higher. Variable costs include those for fuel, machinery maintenance, seed, fertilizer, pesticide and labor. Among the fixed costs are property taxes and interest on loans. The sustainable agriculture has proved since 90s that it will give more profit compared to conventional sustainable. Rural Economies Among the unseen costs of industrial food production are its effects on small family farms and rural communities, which include the loss of nearly four million farms in the United States since the 1930s (Gorelick, 2012). Sustainable farms cater local economies by providing jobs for members of the community and purchasing supplies from local businesses. A study by University of Minnesota showed that small farms with gross incomes of $100,000 or less made almost 95 percent of farm-related expenditures within their local communities (Chism, 1994). Research has shown that small-locally owned farms have a multiplier effect for every cent the farm spends, a percentage remains in the local economy, contributing to the community’s economic health (Swenson, 2009). Factory farms hire as few workers as possible and often purchase supplies, equipment and animal feed from the same agricultural conglomerates that purchase their products (Weida, 2004). The University of Minnesota found that large farms with gross incomes greater than $900,000 made less than 20 percent of farm related expenditures locally(Chism,1994) Industrial farms often have absentee owners whose profits are sent out of town. CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSION In conclusion, the sustainable agriculture helps society, environment as well as economic in positive way. CHAPTER 5 REFERENCES ATTRA. 2003: Applying the Principles of Sustainable Farming http://www.clemson.edu/sustainableag/IP107_Applying_Sust_Farming.pdf NSAC. 2013, Annual Report 2013 John P. Reganold, Robert I. Papendick and James F. Parr. 1990: Sustainable Agriculture, 9-10. Mark Keating, Krista Jacobse, Matt Barton. 2012: University Kentucky: Sustainable Agriculture Werner Harder, BLW, BAFU magazine Umwelt 2/2008 International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development IAASTD, Global Summary for Decision Makers, 2008, www.agassessment.org. David Pimentel et al., Environmental and Economic Costs of Soil Erosion and Conservation Benefits, Science, vol. 267, 24/2/1995 World Population, Agriculture, and Malnutrition − David Pimentel and Anne Wilson; Published on 1 Jan 2005 by WorldWatch / Constructive Creativity Gorelick, S., Norberg-Hodge, H. (2002). Bringing the food economy home.International Society for Ecology Culture. Retrieved August 28, 2012. Chism, J. W., Levins, R. A. (1994). Farm spending and local selling: How do they match up?Minnesota Agricultural Economist, 676. Swenson, D. (2009). Economic impact of a diversified small farming operation in Woodbury county. Department of Economics, Iowa State University. Weida, W. J. (2004). Considering the rationales for factory farming. Environmental Health Impacts of CAFOs: Anticipating Hazards Searching for Solutions. Retrieved August 23, 2012

Capital Punishment Essay: Its Fair and Effective -- Argumentative Pe

Capital Punishment - It's Fair and Effective   Ã‚  Ã‚   Confronting head-on two of the most prominent objections to the death penalty is the object of this paper: Is the death penalty a miscarriage of justice? And Does it Deter Crime?    It's a miscarraige of justice. In a survey Professors Hugo Adam Bedau and Michael Radelet found that 7000 persons were executed in the United States between 1900 and 1985 and that 35 were innocent of capital crimes (1). Among the innocents they list Sacco and Vanzetti as well as Ethel and Julius Rosenberg. Although their data may be questionable, I do not doubt that, over a long enough period, miscarriages of justice will occur even in capital cases. Despite precautions, nearly all human activities, such as trucking, lighting, or construction, cost the lives of some innocent bystanders. We do not give up these activities, because the advantages, moral or material, outweigh the unintended losses (2). Analogously, for those who think the death penalty just, miscarriages of justice are offset by the moral benefits and the usefulness of doing justice. For those who think death penalty unjust even when it does not miscarry, miscarriages can hardly be decisive.    Is it a deterrent? Despite much recent work, there has been no conclusive statistical demonstration that the death penalty is a better deterrent than are alternative punishments (3). However, deterrence is less than decisive for either side. Most abolitionists acknowledge that they would continue to favor abolition even if the death penalty were shown to deter more murders than alternatives could deter (4). Abolitionists appear to value the life of a convicted murderer or, at least, his non-execution, more highly than they v... ...n, however just, of murderers. But although there is a lively discussion of the subject, not serious evidence exists to support the hypothesis that executions produce a higher murder rate. Cf. Phllips, the deterrent Effect of Capital Punishment: New Evidence on an Old Controversy, 86 Am. J. Soc. 139 (1980) (arguing that murder rates drop immediately after executions of criminals). 6 H. Gross, A Theory of Criminal Justice 489 (1979) (attributing this passage to Sir James Fitzjames Stephen). 7 Weems v. United States, 217 U.S. 349 (1910) suggest that penalties be proportionate to the seriousness of the crime - a common theme in criminal law. Murder, therefore, demands more that life imprisonment. In modern times, our sensibility requires that the range of punishments be narrower than the range of crime - but not so narrow as to exclude the death penalty.   

The Postal Acceptance Rule Essay -- Business Law

Contractual agreement has always been viewed in terms of offer and acceptance. The universal principle to contract law has always been parties may get into an agreement in whichever way they deem fit and they are subject to certain terms as they choose. As far as legal requirements vital to their formation are binding contracts may be formed. Moreover a binding agreement may be manifested in terms of writing or in verbal form. One of the controversial issues in the law of contract formation has always been the issue of distance contracts. Matters regarding to the types of rules that should be used to govern this type of contracts have always been a topic of debate. One of these rules includes the age old Postal acceptance rule also known as the â€Å"postal rule† or the â€Å"Mailbox rule†. This paper seeks to examine the justification of the postal acceptance rule and its place in the modern world with the emergence of electronic means of communication Background Postal acceptance rule dates back in 1818 when it was established in a court case of (adam v lindsell) In this case the code had to reach a verdict on the moment of contract formation by post. Apparently the courts found out that the parties communicating acceptance through post office were never certain at the exact time the acceptance had been sent. Since postal communication is subject to delay, the involved parties could never be simultaneously aware of the acceptance of the communication, that is, the communication was non instantaneous. As a result this created a series of problems that in turn led to the formation of the postal acceptance rule that still is in so much use today The postal acceptance rule The postal acceptance rule as accepted in the law legal systems... ... Journal (1997): 13. poggi, chrisopher T. "Electronic commerce legislation :An analysis of European and American approaches to contract formation." Virginia journal of international (n.d.). rule", The electronic formation of contracts and the common law: "mailbox. baylor law review. 8 april 2004. scott, Dave. Should the postal acceptance rule be applied t email. 8 april 2012 . T, Poggi and Christopher. "Electronic Commerce Legislation: An analysis of European and American Approaches to Contract Formation." Virginia Journal OF International Law (2000): 224. watnick, valerie. THE ELECTRONIC FORMATION OF CONTRACTS AND THECOMMON LAW "mailbox rule". 6 november 2004. Yamaguchi, mikio. "The problem of delay in the Contract formation Process: A comparative study of contract law' ." cornell international law (2004): 357.

Fuzzy Logic

Overview The reasoning in fuzzy logic is similar to human reasoning. It allows for approximate values and inferences as well as incomplete or ambiguous data (fuzzy data) as opposed to only relying on crisp data (binary yes/no choices). Fuzzy logic is able to process incomplete data and provide approximate solutions to problems other methods find difficult to solve. Terminology used in fuzzy logic not used in other methods are: very high, increasing, somewhat decreased, reasonable and very low. [4] [edit]Degrees of truth Fuzzy logic and probabilistic logic are mathematically similar – both have truth values ranging between 0 and 1 – but conceptually distinct, due to different interpretations—see interpretations of probability theory. Fuzzy logic corresponds to â€Å"degrees of truth†, while probabilistic logic corresponds to â€Å"probability, likelihood†; as these differ, fuzzy logic and probabilistic logic yield different models of the same real-world situations. Both degrees of truth and probabilities range between 0 and 1 and hence may seem similar at first. For example, let a 100 ml glass contain 30 ml of water. Then we may consider two concepts: Empty and Full. The meaning of each of them can be represented by a certain fuzzy set. Then one might define the glass as being 0. 7 empty and 0. 3 full. Note that the concept of emptiness would be subjective and thus would depend on the observer or designer. Another designer might equally well design a set membership function where the glass would be considered full for all values down to 50 ml. It is essential to realize that fuzzy logic uses truth degrees as a mathematical model of the vagueness phenomenon while probability is a mathematical model of ignorance. edit]Applying truth values A basic application might characterize subranges of a continuous variable. For instance, a temperature measurement for anti-lock brakes might have several separate membership functions defining particular temperature ranges needed to control the brakes properly. Each function maps the same temperature value to a truth value in the 0 to 1 range. These truth values can then be used to determine how the brakes should be controlled. Fuzzy logic temperature In this image, the meaning of the expressions cold, warm, and hot is represented by functions mapping a temperature scale. A point on that scale has three â€Å"truth values†Ã¢â‚¬â€one for each of the three functions. The vertical line in the image represents a particular temperature that the three arrows (truth values) gauge. Since the red arrow points to zero, this temperature may be interpreted as â€Å"not hot†. The orange arrow (pointing at 0. 2) may describe it as â€Å"slightly warm† and the blue arrow (pointing at 0. 8) â€Å"fairly cold†. [edit]Linguistic variables While variables in mathematics usually take numerical values, in fuzzy logic applications, the non-numeric linguistic variables are often used to facilitate the expression of rules and facts. 5] A linguistic variable such as age may have a value such as young or its antonym old. However, the great utility of linguistic variables is that they can be modified via linguistic hedges applied to primary terms. The linguistic hedges can be associated with certain functions. [edit]Example Fuzzy set theory defines fuzzy operators on fuzzy sets. The problem in applying this is that the appropriate fuzzy operator may not be known. For this reason, fuzzy logic usually uses IF-THEN rules, or constructs that are equivalent, such as fuzzy associative matrices. Rules are usually expressed in the form: IF variable IS property THEN action For example, a simple temperature regulator that uses a fan might look like this: IF temperature IS very cold THEN stop fan IF temperature IS cold THEN turn down fan IF temperature IS normal THEN maintain level IF temperature IS hot THEN speed up fan There is no â€Å"ELSE† – all of the rules are evaluated, because the temperature might be â€Å"cold† and â€Å"normal† at the same time to different degrees. The AND, OR, and NOT operators of boolean logic exist in fuzzy logic, usually defined as the minimum, maximum, and omplement; when they are defined this way, they are called the Zadeh operators. So for the fuzzy variables x and y: NOT x = (1 – truth(x)) x AND y = minimum(truth(x), truth(y)) x OR y = maximum(truth(x), truth(y)) There are also other operators, more linguistic in nature, called hedges that can be applied. These are generally adverbs such as â€Å"very†, or â€Å"somewhat†, which modify the meaning of a set using a mathematical formula. [edit]Logical analysis In mathematical logic, there are several formal systems of â€Å"fuzzy logic†; most of them belong among so-called t-norm fuzzy logics. edit]Propositional fuzzy logics The most important propositional fuzzy logics are: Monoidal t-norm-based propositional fuzzy logic MTL is an axiomatization of logic where conjunction is defined by a left continuous t-norm, and implication is defined as the residuum of the t-norm. Its models correspond to MTL-algebras that are prelinear commutative bounded integral residuated lattices. Basic propositional fuzzy logic BL is an extension of MTL logic where conjunction is defined by a continuous t-norm, and implication is also defined as the residuum of the t-norm. Its models correspond to BL-algebras. Lukasiewicz fuzzy logic is the extension of basic fuzzy logic BL where standard conjunction is the Lukasiewicz t-norm. It has the axioms of basic fuzzy logic plus an axiom of double negation, and its models correspond to MV-algebras. Godel fuzzy logic is the extension of basic fuzzy logic BL where conjunction is Godel t-norm. It has the axioms of BL plus an axiom of idempotence of conjunction, and its models are called G-algebras. Product fuzzy logic is the extension of basic fuzzy logic BL where conjunction is product t-norm. It has the axioms of BL plus another axiom for cancellativity of conjunction, and its models are called product algebras. Fuzzy logic with evaluated syntax (sometimes also called Pavelka's logic), denoted by EVL, is a further generalization of mathematical fuzzy logic. While the above kinds of fuzzy logic have traditional syntax and many-valued semantics, in EVL is evaluated also syntax. This means that each formula has an evaluation. Axiomatization of EVL stems from Lukasziewicz fuzzy logic. A generalization of classical Godel completeness theorem is provable in EVL. edit]Predicate fuzzy logics These extend the above-mentioned fuzzy logics by adding universal and existential quantifiers in a manner similar to the way that predicate logic is created from propositional logic. The semantics of the universal (resp. existential) quantifier in t-norm fuzzy logics is the infimum (resp. supremum) of the truth degrees of the instances of the quantified subformula. [edit]Decidability issues f or fuzzy logic The notions of a â€Å"decidable subset† and â€Å"recursively enumerable subset† are basic ones for classical mathematics and classical logic. Then, the question of a suitable extension of such concepts to fuzzy set theory arises. A first proposal in such a direction was made by E. S. Santos by the notions of fuzzy Turing machine, Markov normal fuzzy algorithm and fuzzy program (see Santos 1970). Successively, L. Biacino and G. Gerla showed that such a definition is not adequate and therefore proposed the following one. U denotes the set of rational numbers in [0,1]. A fuzzy subset s : S [0,1] of a set S is recursively enumerable if a recursive map h : S? N U exists such that, for every x in S, the function h(x,n) is increasing with respect to n and s(x) = lim h(x,n). We say that s is decidable if both s and its complement –s are recursively enumerable. An extension of such a theory to the general case of the L-subsets is proposed in Gerla 2006. The proposed definitions are well related with fuzzy logic. Indeed, the following theorem holds true (provided that the deduction apparatus of the fuzzy logic satisfies some obvious effectiveness property). Theorem. Any axiomatizable fuzzy theory is recursively enumerable. In particular, the fuzzy set of logically true formulas is recursively enumerable in spite of the fact that the crisp set of valid formulas is not recursively enumerable, in general. Moreover, any axiomatizable and complete theory is decidable. It is an open question to give supports for a Church thesis for fuzzy logic claiming that the proposed notion of recursive enumerability for fuzzy subsets is the adequate one. To this aim, further investigations on the notions of fuzzy grammar and fuzzy Turing machine should be necessary (see for example Wiedermann's paper). Another open uestion is to start from this notion to find an extension of Godel’s theorems to fuzzy logic. [edit]Fuzzy databases Once fuzzy relations are defined, it is possible to develop fuzzy relational databases. The first fuzzy relational database, FRDB, appeared in Maria Zemankova's dissertation. Later, some other models arose like the Buckles-Petry model, the Prade-Testemale Model, the Umano-Fukami model or t he GEFRED model by J. M. Medina, M. A. Vila et al. In the context of fuzzy databases, some fuzzy querying languages have been defined, highlighting the SQLf by P. Bosc et al. and the FSQL by J. Galindo et al. These languages define some structures in order to include fuzzy aspects in the SQL statements, like fuzzy conditions, fuzzy comparators, fuzzy constants, fuzzy constraints, fuzzy thresholds, linguistic labels and so on. [edit]Comparison to probability Fuzzy logic and probability are different ways of expressing uncertainty. While both fuzzy logic and probability theory can be used to represent subjective belief, fuzzy set theory uses the concept of fuzzy set membership (i. e. , how much a variable is in a set), and probability theory uses the concept of subjective probability (i. . , how probable do I think that a variable is in a set). While this distinction is mostly philosophical, the fuzzy-logic-derived possibility measure is inherently different from the probability measure, hence they are not directly equivalent. However, many statisticians are persuaded by the work of Bruno de Finetti that only one kind of mathematical uncertainty is needed and thus fuzzy logic is unnecessary. On the other hand, Bart Kosko argues[citation needed] that probability is a subtheory of fuzzy logic, as probability only handles one kind of uncertainty. He also claims[citation needed] to have proven a derivation of Bayes' theorem from the concept of fuzzy subsethood. Lotfi Zadeh argues that fuzzy logic is different in character from probability, and is not a replacement for it. He fuzzified probability to fuzzy probability and also generalized it to what is called possibility theory. (cf. [6]) [edit]See also Logic portal Thinking portal Artificial intelligence Artificial neural network Defuzzification Dynamic logic Expert system False dilemma Fuzzy architectural spatial analysis Fuzzy associative matrix Fuzzy classification Fuzzy concept Fuzzy Control Language Fuzzy Control System Fuzzy electronics Fuzzy mathematics Fuzzy set Fuzzy subalgebra FuzzyCLIPS expert system Machine learning Multi-valued logic Neuro-fuzzy Paradox of the heap Rough set Type-2 fuzzy sets and systems Vagueness Interval finite element Noise-based logic [edit]Notes ^ Novak, V. , Perfilieva, I. and Mockor, J. (1999) Mathematical principles of fuzzy logic Dodrecht: Kluwer Academic. ISBN 0-7923-8595-0 ^ â€Å"Fuzzy Logic†. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. 2006-07-23. Retrieved 2008-09-29. ^ Zadeh, L. A. (1965). Fuzzy sets†, Information and Control 8 (3): 338–353. ^ James A. O'Brien; George M. Marakas (2011). Management Information Systesm (10th ed. ). New York: McGraw Hill. pp. 431. ^ Zadeh, L. A. et al. 1996 Fuzzy Sets, Fuzzy Logic, Fuzzy Systems, World Scientific Press, ISBN 9810224214 ^ Novak, V. Are fuzzy sets a reasonable tool for modeling vague phenomena? , Fuzzy Sets and Systems 156 ( 2005) 341—348. [edit]Bibliography Von Altrock, Constantin (1995). Fuzzy logic and NeuroFuzzy applications explained. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall PTR. ISBN 0-13-368465-2. Arabacioglu, B. C. (2010). â€Å"Using fuzzy inference system for architectural space analysis†. Applied Soft Computing 10 (3): 926–937. Biacino, L. ; Gerla, G. (2002). â€Å"Fuzzy logic, continuity and effectiveness†. Archive for Mathematical Logic 41 (7): 643–667. doi:10. 1007/s001530100128. ISSN 0933-5846. Cox, Earl (1994). The fuzzy systems handbook: a practitioner's guide to building, using, maintaining fuzzy systems. Boston: AP Professional. ISBN 0-12-194270-8. Gerla, Giangiacomo (2006). â€Å"Effectiveness and Multivalued Logics†. 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